Commercial Energy Auditing Reference Handbook, 3rd edition

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Table of Contents

Introduction
User Guide
Suggested References
Section I—Specific Information
Chapter 1 Benchmarking
General
Differentiating by Energy Source
Energy Use Intensity
Limitations of EUI
Calculating EUI
Mixed EUI
Production EUI
EUI Adjustment for Occupancy
Energy End Use Distribution
Energy End Use Variations Over Time
Energy Cost as a Percent of Total Operating Cost
Limitations of Using Benchmark Data
Chapter 2 Analyzing Energy Use Graphs
General
Intuitive Information
Year by Year Comparisons
Weather Dependence
Load Factor
Business Volume (Production Rates)
Savings Opportunities
Chapter 3 Energy Saving Opportunities by Business Type
PBA concept
Energy End Use Pies
Apartment Buildings/Multi-Family/ Dormitories
Churches/Worship
Data Centers
Education—Colleges and Universities
Education—Schools K-12
Food Sales—Grocery Stores
Food Service/Restaurants
Health Care—Hospital
Health Care—Non Hospital
Laundries—Commercial
Libraries/Museums
Lodging/Hotels/Motels
Office Buildings
Retail/Sales
Warehouses
Pools
Ice Rinks
Specific Sub Systems
Boilers
Chillers
High Rise
Variable Air Volume Systems
Chapter 4 Manufacturing and Unit Operations
Introduction
Common Themes in Approaching Process Efficiency
Metrics: Macro View
Metrics: Micro View
Process Diagramming
Standby Losses
Process-Related Shared Systems
Building Services Energy Use
Reviewing Coincidence of Activities
Reviewing the Process Itself
Desire for Energy Use to Follow Production Rates
Primary Energy Use Sources
Production Scheduling
Maintenance
Controls
Some Common ECMs for Manufacturing
Specific Light Manufacturing ECMs by Process
Chapter 5 ECM Descriptions
ECM Descriptions—Envelope
ECM Descriptions—Lighting
ECM Descriptions—HVAC
ECM Descriptions—Boilers and District Heating
ECM Descriptions—Swimming Pools
ECM Descriptions—Heat Recovery
ECM Descriptions—Thermal Storage (TES)
ECM Descriptions—Electrical
ECM Descriptions—Compressed Air
ECM Descriptions—Laundry
Chapter 6 Utility Rate Components
Electric
Gas
Chapter 7 Automatic Control Strategies
General
Cost/Benefit Ratio for Control System EMCs
Control System Application Notes
Lighting Control Strategies—Basic
HVAC Control Strategies—Basic
Lighting Control Strategies—Advanced
HVAC Control Strategies—Advanced
Other Ways to Leverage DDC Controls
Control System Calibration
Chapter 8 Building Operations and Maintenance
Vacancy
Closing a Facility for Part of a Week
Closing a Portion of a Facility for Extended Periods
Facility Repair Costs
Maintenance Value
Poor Indoor Comfort and Indoor Air Quality Costs
Productivity Value
Maintenance Energy Benefits
Heat Exchanger Approach Diagrams
Chapter 9 Quantifying Savings
General
Measure Interactions
Bin Weather Used to Estimate Load Profile and ECM Savings
Equipment Efficiency Profiles
Rough Estimating Envelope Improvement Savings
Establishing the HVAC Load Profile
Adjusting the HVAC Load Profile for Humid Climates
Adjusting the HVAC Load Profile for Overlapping Heating and Cooling
Sample Savings Calculations
Load-following Air and Water Flows vs. Constant Flow (VSD Benefit)
Supply Air Reset vs. Reheat—Constant Volume
Supply Air Reset with VAV vs. Increased Fan Energy
Condenser Water Reset vs. Constant Temperature
Chilled Water Reset for Variable Pumping vs. Increased Pump Energy
Water-Side Economizer vs. Chiller Cooling
Higher Efficiency Lighting vs. Existing Lighting
Higher Efficiency Motors vs. Existing Motors
Higher Efficiency Chiller vs. Existing Chiller
Higher Efficiency Boiler vs. Existing Boiler
Hot Water Reset from Outside Air vs. Constant Temperature
Reduce Air System Friction Losses—Constant Volume
Automatic Control Savings Examples
Computer Modeling/Simulating Energy Use
Measurement and Verification (M&V)
Macro Baselines—for Goals and Projections
Chapter 10 Sustaining Savings
Tendency for Initial Savings to Deteriorate
Maintaining Initial Savings
Checklist for service access and operations
Section II—General Information
Chapter 11 Mechanical Systems
General
HVAC System Types
Water-Cooled vs. Air-Cooled—
Single Pass Mechanical Systems
Oil-Less Refrigeration Technology
Hermetic Motor Energy Penalty
Thermal Energy Transport Notes
Chillers
Part Load Chilled Water System Performance
Cooling Towers and Evaporative Fluid Coolers
Dry Coolers
Electronic Expansion Valves
Air and Water Circulating System Resistance
Fan/Pump Motor Work Equation
Fan and Pump Efficiencies
Thermal Balance Concept for Buildings
Air-Side Economizer
Cooling Energy Balance for Heat Producing Equipment
Humidifiers
Kitchen Hoods and Make-Up Air
Heat Pumps
Refrigeration Cycle
Evaporative Cooling
Spot Cooling
VAV Reheat Penalty
Glycol vs. Efficiency
Cost of Ventilation
Simultaneous Heating and Cooling
Chapter 12 Motors and Electrical Information
Full Load Motor Efficiency
Part Load Motor Efficiency—Constant Speed
Part Load Motor Efficiency—Variable Speed
Effect of Voltage Changes on Induction Motor Characteristics
Voltage Imbalance
Sources of Motor Losses
Common Motor Design Characteristics
Permanent Magnet Motors
Fractional Horsepower Motors
Variable Speed Drives
Power Factor
Chapter 13 Combustion Equipment and Systems
Steam Cost
Combustion Efficiency
Boiler Heating Output When Only Heating Surface Area is Known
Boiler StandBy Heat Loss (Boiler Skin Loss)
Boiler Cycling Losses
Savings from Various Boiler Improvements
Pilot Light Fuel Consumption
Natural Draft Flue—Dilution Air
Savings from Steam System Improvements
Steam Leaks
Flue Gas Recoverable Heat
Savings from Reducing Excess Air
Generator Fuel Consumption
Heat Rate
Chapter 14 Compressed Air
Contents
Overall Efficiency of Compressed Air
Standard SCFM vs. Actual ACFM
Compressor Efficiency
Compressed Air Cost
Compressor Capacity Control
Compressed Air Leaks
Compressed Air Driers
Pressure Drop from Friction in Piping
Storage and Capacitance
Rules of Thumb
Chapter 15 Fan and Pump Drives
Fan/Pump Capacity Modulation Methods
V-Belts
Synchronous Belts
Variable Speed Drive Considerations
Best Efficiency Point (BEP)
Pump/Fan Curve Characteristics
Wire-To-Water Efficiency
VSD Savings: Square Instead of Cube
Affinity Law Application Where Static Head is Involved
Savings Impact When Controlling to a ConstantDownstream Pressure—VAV and Variable Pumping
Savings from Lowering DownstreamMaintained Pressure Setting
Chapter 16 Lighting
General
Lighting terms
Dimming
Lighting vs. Distance
Light Colored Surfaces
Lighting Technology Properties
LED Technology
Lighting Energy Use, Pct of Total Electric, by Building Type
Lighting Hours by Building Type
Typical Recommended Lighting Levels
Lighting Opportunities
Occupancy Sensor Energy Savings
Lighting Impacts on HVAC Use by Climate
Lighting Power Budget Values Watts/SF
Chapter 17 Envelope Information
BLC Heat Loss Method
R-Value Reduction from Stud Walls
Glazing Properties
Infiltration
Air Flow Created from Building Stack Effect
Air Flow Through Open Dock Doors
Door Infiltration Rates
Composite U-values for Envelope Evaluation
Percent Skylight/Clerestory Effect on Overall Gross Roof Insulation U-value
Chapter 18 Domestic Water Heating
Domestic Water Heaters
Domestic Water Heater Standby Losses
Chapter 19 Weather Data
Degree-days
Bin Weather Data
Weather Data by Days and Times
Chapter 20 Pollution and Greenhouse Gases
Pollution—Emission Conversion Factors by State
Pollution—Conversion to Equivalent Number of Automobiles
Other Environmental Considerations
Chapter 21 Formulas and Conversions
Efficiency
COP, EER, kW/Ton
Heat-conversion Factors
Affinity Laws
Electrical Formulas
Load Factor
Energy Transport (Circulating Water and Air)
Heat Transfer Formulas
HVAC Formulas and Conversions
Altitude Correction
Humidification
Dehumidification
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
Properties of Air, Water, Ice
Specific Heat of Air and Water
Heating Values of Common Fuels
Latent Heat of Water
Insulation Formulas
Other Useful Formulas
Fuel Switching—Electric Resistance Heat vs. Combustion Heat
Heat Pump—Approximate COP from High/Low Region Temperatures
Heat Pump—Approximate kW Power from COP
Chimney Effect
Other Conversion Factors
Conversion Factor Tables
Metric Conversion Factors
Chapter 22 Water Efficiency
Introduction
A Philosophy of Water
Water Technology Compared to Energy Technology
Reduced Pressure
Water Grades
Filters and Strainers
Cooling Towers
Boilers
Process Water Purification
Water Efficiency for Mechanical Cooling Systems
Evaporation Loss
Domestic Hot and Cold Water Systems
Water Reuse Opportunities
Potable Water Substitutes
Water Accounting
Appendix A: Consumptive Use
Appendix B: Embedded Energy in Water and Waste Water
Chapter 23 Using Feedback for Energy Management
Introduction
The Need for Feedback
Obstacles to Behavior Savings
Behavior Choices and Feedback
Operations and Maintenance
Choices and Feedback
Management Choices and Feedback
Utility Choices and Feedback
Energy Dashboards
Deputy Effect
Sub Meters
Savings from O&M and Behavior
Additional Related Topics
Chapter 24 Special Topics
A— Data Center Efficiency
High Energy Use Intensity in Data Center Power Food Chain
Server Part Load Energy Use
Measures to Reduce Computer Energy Use Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE)
Mechanical Cooling Energy Reflection
Water Cost
Cooling Designs
Interaction of HVAC Measures
Basic HVAC Strategies
HVAC System Variations
Additional Opportunities for Data Centers
Economizers
B— Percent per Degree Rule of Thumb for Refrigeration Cycle Improvement
C— Early Replacement Business Case
D— Lease Arrangements-Effect on Energy Project Interest
E— Coordinating Upstream/Downstream Setpoints
F— Semiconductor Fab Multi-Stage HVAC Air Tempering
G— HVAC Retrofits for the Three Worst Systems
H— Chilled Water System Discussion and ECMs
Proportional Pumping Energy Use
Flow Matching
Approach to Achieving Chiller Plant Energy Savings
Modifying Air Handling Systems to Increase System DT
Variable Secondary Flow
High Efficiency Chiller
Other Chilled Water System ECMS
Tertiary Pumping
Variable Primary Chilled Water Flow (Dedicated Pumps)
Variable Condenser Water Flow
Primary-Only Pumping
Chilled Water Economizer
Variable Flow During Water Side Economizer Operation
Condenser Water Reset
I— Commissioning
J— Envelope Tradeoffs-Light Harvesting, Window Tinting
K— Overlapping Heating and Cooling
L— Part Load HVAC Efficiency
M— Facility Guide Specifications: Suggestions to Build-inEnergy Efficiency
N— Regression for Energy Management
O— Error Band Using Energy Consumption Signaturesas an Operational Control
P— Information from Interval Data
Basic Uses of Interval Data
Case Studies
Section III—Appendix
Appendix
Glossary of Terms
Conflicting ECMs and ‘Watch Outs’
Top 10 IAQ Mistakes a CEM Should Avoid
Energy Audit levels
Representative Tasks and Background Knowledge for Energy Management and Energy Engineering
Net Zero Definitions
Cost Estimating—Accuracy Levels Defined
Simple Payback vs. Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
DSM Program Cost Effectiveness Tests
Heat Loss from Uninsulated Hot Piping and Surfaces
Duct Fitting Loss Coefficients
Evaporation Loss from Water in Heated Tanks
Cooling Tower Cold Water Basin Heat Loss
Clean Room Particles and Air Changes by Class
Bin Weather Data for 5 Cities
Hours per Year Outside Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperature
Altitude Correction Factors at Different Temperatures (Fa)
Parsing CBECS Data
CBECS Climate Zone Map
Building Use Categories Defined (CBECS)
Operating Expenses: Percent that Are from Utility Costs
Operating Expenses: Percent that Are from Utility Costs (Manufacturing)
Service Life of Various System Components
Equating Energy Savings to Profit Increase
Integrated Design Examples
Energy Audit Approach for Commercial Buildings
Energy Audit Look-For Items
Energy Audit—Sample Questionnaire/Checklist
ASHRAE Psychrometric Charts 1-5
Refrigerant Replacement Matrix
Refrigerant Pressure-Enthalpy (Mollier) Diagrams
Blended Refrigerants
Pressure-Temperature Charts for Refrigerants
Index

Author: Steve Doty

e-ISBN: 9788770223300